Wave function of a particle in free state

The wave function of a free particle:

Suppose a particle of mass $m$ is in motion along the x-axis. Suppose no force is acting on the particle so that the potential energy of the particle is constant. For convenience, the constant potential energy is taken to b zero. Hence, the time-independent Schrodinger equation for a free particle is given by:

$-\frac{\hbar^{2}}{2m} \frac{d^{2} \psi}{dx^{2}}=E \psi \qquad(1)$

Since the particle is moving freely with zero potential energy, its total energy $E$ is the kinetic energy given by

$E=\frac{p^{2}_{x}}{2m}$

Where $p_{x}$ is the momentum of the particle that is moving along the x-axis.

$\frac{d^{2} \psi}{dx^{2}} + \frac{2mE}{\hbar^{2}} \psi =0 \qquad(2)$

Let $k^{2}=\frac{2mE}{\hbar^{2}} $,

Now substitute the value of $k^{2}$ in the above equation $(2)$ that can be written as

$\frac{d^{2} \psi}{dx^{2}} + k^{2} \psi =0 \qquad(3)$

The solution of the above equation $(3)$

$\psi (x) = A e^{ikx} + B e^{-ikx} \qquad(4)$

Here $A$ and $B$ are constants.

The equation$(4)$ gives the wave function of time independent. The complete wave function (i.e for both time-dependent and independent ) for a particle is given by

$\psi(x,t)=\psi(x) e^{-i\omega t}$

$\psi(x,t)=\left( A e^{ikx} + B e^{-ikx} \right) e^{-i\omega t}$

$\psi(x,t)=A e^{\left(ikx-i\omega t \right)} + B e^{\left(-ikx -i\omega t \right)} $

$\psi(x,t)= A e^{-i\left(\omega t - kx \right)} + B e^{-i\left(\omega t + kx\right)} \quad(5)$

The above equation $(5)$ represents a continuous plane simple harmonic wave. The first term on the right side of the above equation $(5)$ represents the wave traveling in the positive x-direction, and the second term represents the wave traveling in the negative x-direction. Therefore, the wave function for the motion of a particle in the positive x-direction, we have

$\psi(x,t)= A e^{-i\left(\omega t - kx \right)} \qquad(6)$

The complex conjugate of the above wave function equation of free particle:

$\psi^{*}(x,t)= A e^{i\left(\omega t - k x \right)} \quad(7)$

Eigenfunction and Eigen Value of linear momentum operator:

Now the momentum operator $\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial}{\partial x}$, operating on the equation $(6)$ i.e wave function of a free particle moving along the positive x-axis:

$\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial \psi(x,t)}{\partial x}= \frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial }{\partial x} \left[ A e^{-i\left(\omega t - k x \right)} \right]$

$\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial \psi(x,t)}{\partial x}= \frac{\hbar}{i} \left[ A \left( ik \right)e^{-i\left(\omega t - kx \right)} \right]$

$\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial \psi(x,t)}{\partial x}= \hbar k \left[ A e^{-i\left(\omega t - kx \right)} \right]$

$\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial \psi(x,t)}{\partial x}= \hbar k \psi(x,t) \qquad(8)$

This equation shows that the wave function $\psi(x,t)$ for the particle is an eigenfunction of the linear momentum operator, and the momentum $p_{x}$ is the eigenvalue of the operator. Hence the momentum remains sharp with the value $p_{x}$

Probability of finding the free particle:

The probability of finding the position a particle in the region between $x$ and $x+dx$ is given by

$P \: dx =\psi(x,t) \psi^{*}(x,t) dx \qquad(8)$

Now substitute the value of $\psi(x,t)$ and $\psi^{*}(x,t)$ from equation $(6)$ and equation $(7)$ in above equation $(8)$, then we get

$P \: dx = A^{2} dx \qquad(9)$

Therefore the probability density $P$ for the position of the particle with the definite value of momentum is constant over the x-axis, i.e., All positions of the particle are equally probable. This conclusion is also obtained from the principle of uncertainty.

According to the interpretation of the wave function, the probability of finding the particle somewhere in space must be equal to $1$. i.e

$\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \psi(x,t) \psi^{*}(x,t) dx=1 \qquad(9)$

In this case $\psi(x,t) \psi^{*}(x,t) = A^{2}$ ,

There, the integral on the left side of the equation $(9)$ is infinite. Hence the wave function for the free particle cannot be normalized and $A$ must remain arbitrary. The difficulty arises because we are dealing with an ideal case. In practice, we can not have an absolutely free particle. The particle will always be confined within an enclosure in the laboratory, and hence its position can be determined. This means that its momentum cannot be determined with absolute accuracy.

Read More

Description of Compton Effect : Experiment Setup, Theory, Theoretical Expression, Limitation, Recoil Electron

The Compton Effect

1	Compton Experiment Setup
2	Theory of the Compton Effect
3	Theoretical Derivation of Compton Effect (Equation of Compton Shift)
4	Limitation of Compton Effect
5	Compton Recoil Electron- 5(a)Relation between $\theta$ and $\phi$ 5(b) Kinetic Energy of the Recoil Electron

1.) Compton Experiment Setup:

The Compton effect is used to verify the particle nature of matter by applying the photoelectric effect. The setup of the Compton experiment as shown in the figure below which consists of the following parts

i.) X-ray source

ii.) Collimator

iii.) Target

iv.) Bragg's Spectrometer

i.) X-ray Source: The X-ray source is used to produce the monochromatic X-ray

ii.) Collimators: The collimators consist of slits that are used to pass the photon in the same direction.

iii.) Target: The target is made up of low atomic number material (i.e. Beryllium, Graphite, Aluminium) in which the monochromatic x-ray is incident and scattered in all directions.

iv.) Braggs Spectrometer: The Braggs spectrometer is used to measure the intensity of these scattered photons of monochromatic X-ray at different angles by the analyzing crystal and ionization chamber.

Working:

When the monochromatic X-ray is produced through an X-ray source and this monochromatic X-ray passes through slit $S_{1}$ and $S_{2}$ (i.e. Collimator). This slit $S_{1}$ and $S_{2}$ passes only the photon of a monochromatic X-ray beam in one direction. Now this beam is incident on graphite block (i.e. Target) and scattered in all directions. Now the intensity of the scattered beam at different angles is measured by a Braggs spectrometer. The major measured intensity by the Braggs spectrometer at different angles is shown in the figure below.

2.) Theory of the Compton Effect:

To explain the effect, Compton applied Einstein's quantum theory of light with the assumption that incident photons possess momentum. The postulates on which the theory is based are as follows.

i.) A beam of monochromatic X-ray is consist of a stream of photons having energy $h\nu$ and momentum $\frac{h\nu}{c}$. These photons travel in the direction of the beam with the speed of light.

ii.) The scattering of X-rays by atoms of graphite element is the result of elastic collisions between photons and electrons. This is an elastic collision so the energy and momentum will be conserved (i.e. in such a collision there is no loss of kinetic energy).

Note: The outer shell electron is loosely bound with the atom and required a very small amount of energy to leave the atom but the X-ray photons have very high energy. So the loosely bound electron of the atom leaves atom the permanently. Therefore for the X-ray loosely bound electrons can be considered as free electrons at rest.

3.) Theoretical Derivation of Compton Effect (Equation of Compton Shift):

Let us consider

The energy of the incident photon $E_{i}=h\nu$

The momentum of the incident photon $p_{i}=\frac{h\nu}{c}$

The energy of the scattered photon $E_{s}=h\nu'$

The momentum of the scattered photon $p_{s}=\frac{h\nu'}{c}$

The relativistic energy of the recoil electron $E_{e}=\left( p^{2}c^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} \right)^\frac{1}{2}$

The momentum of the recoil electron $p_{e}=p$

The energy of an electron at rest $E_{r}=m_{\circ}c^{2}$

The momentum of an electron at rest $p_{r}=0$

According to the energy conservation principle,

The total energy of an electron and an X-ray photon before the collision = The total energy of an electron and an X-ray photon after the collision

$E_{i}+E_{r}= E_{e}+E_{s}$

$h\nu + m_{\circ}c^{2} = \left( p^{2}c^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} \right)^\frac{1}{2} + h\nu'$

$\left( p^{2}c^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} \right)^\frac{1}{2} = h\nu - h\nu' + m_{\circ}c^{2}$

$\left( p^{2}c^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} \right)^\frac{1}{2} = h \left( \nu - \nu' \right) + m_{\circ}c^{2}$

Square the above equation

$\left( p^{2}c^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} \right) = \left[ h \left( \nu - \nu' \right) + m_{\circ}c^{2} \right]^{2}$

$p^{2}c^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} = h^{2} \left( \nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + m_{\circ}^{2}c^{4} + 2 h \left( \nu - \nu' \right) m_{\circ}c^{2}$

$p^{2}c^{2} = h^{2} \left( \nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + 2 h \left( \nu - \nu' \right) m_{\circ}c^{2}$

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \left( \nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + \frac{2m_{\circ}c^{2}}{h} \left( \nu - \nu' \right) \qquad(1)$

Momentum is a vector quantity and it is conserved for elastic collision in each of two mutually perpendicular directions.

Total momentum along the direction of the incident photon:

$p\: cos\phi + \frac{h\nu'}{c} \: cos\theta=\frac{h\nu}{c}$

$p\: cos\phi =\frac{h\nu}{c} - \frac{h\nu'}{c} \: cos\theta$

$\frac{pc}{h}\: cos\phi =\nu - \nu'\: cos\theta \qquad(2)$

Total momentum at the right angle to the direction of the incident photon:

$p\:sin\phi=\frac{h\nu'}{c}sin\theta$

$\frac{pc}{h}\: sin\phi =\nu'\: sin\theta \qquad(3)$

To eliminate $\phi$, square the equation $(2)$ and equation $(3)$ and then add them. This gives

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}}\: cos^{2}\phi + \frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}}\: sin^{2}\phi = \left(\nu - \nu'\: cos\theta \right)^{2}+ \nu'^{2}\: sin^{2}\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} \left(sin^{2}\phi + cos^{2}\phi \right) = \left(\nu - \nu'\: cos\theta \right)^{2}+ \nu'^{2}\: sin^{2}\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \left(\nu - \nu'\: cos\theta \right)^{2}+ \nu'^{2}\: sin^{2}\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \nu^{2} + \nu'^{2}\: cos^{2}\theta - 2 \nu \nu' \:cos\theta + \nu'^{2}\: sin^{2}\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \nu^{2} + \nu'^{2} \left(sin^{2}\theta + cos^{2}\theta \right) - 2 \nu \nu' \:cos\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \nu^{2} + \nu'^{2} - 2 \nu \nu' \:cos\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \nu^{2} + \nu'^{2} - 2 \nu \nu'+ 2 \nu \nu' - 2 \nu \nu' \:cos\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \left(\nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + 2 \nu \nu' - 2 \nu \nu' \:cos\theta $

$\frac{p^{2}c^{2}}{h^{2}} = \left(\nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + 2 \nu \nu'\left(1 - cos\theta \right) \quad(4) $

Equation $(1)$ and equation $(4)$ left-hand sides are equal, So equate their right-hand sides, then we get

$ \left( \nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + \frac{2m_{\circ}c^{2}}{h} \left( \nu - \nu' \right) = \left(\nu - \nu' \right)^{2} + 2 \nu \nu'\left(1 - cos\theta \right)$

$ \frac{2m_{\circ}c^{2}}{h} \left( \nu - \nu' \right) = 2 \nu \nu'\left(1 - cos\theta \right)$

$ \frac{\left( \nu - \nu' \right)}{\nu\nu'} = \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c^{2}} \left(1 - cos\theta \right)$

$ \frac{1}{\nu'}-\frac{1}{\nu} = \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c^{2}} \left(1 - cos\theta \right) \qquad(5)$

$ \frac{c}{\nu'}-\frac{c}{\nu} = \frac{hc}{m_{\circ}c^{2}} \left(1 - cos\theta \right)$

$ \frac{c}{\nu'}-\frac{c}{\nu} = \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c} \left(1 - cos\theta \right)$

$ \lambda'-\lambda = \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c} \left(1 - cos\theta \right) $

$ \Delta \lambda = \lambda'-\lambda = \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c} \left(1 - cos\theta \right) \qquad(6)$

$ \Delta \lambda = \lambda'-\lambda = \frac{2h}{m_{\circ}c} cos^{2}\theta \qquad(7)$

Here the equation $(6)$ and equation $(7)$ is the expression for the Compton Shift in the wavelength of the X-rays, scattered by electrons in a low atomic number material.

The quantity $\frac{h}{2m_{\circ}c}$ is called the "Compton wavelength" of the electron and denoted by $\lambda_{e}$. The numerical value of $\frac{h}{2m_{\circ}c}$ is $0.2426 \times 10^{-11}$ or $0.02426 A^{\circ}$. Now substitute this value in the above equation $(6)$ and equation $(7)$. Therefore

$ \Delta \lambda = \lambda'-\lambda = \lambda_{e} \left(1 - cos\theta \right) \: A^{\circ}$

$ \Delta \lambda = \lambda'-\lambda = 0.02426 \left(1 - cos\theta \right) \: A^{\circ}$

$ \Delta \lambda = \lambda'-\lambda = 2 \lambda_{e} \: cos^{2}\theta \: A^{\circ}$

$ \Delta \lambda = \lambda'-\lambda = 0.04852 \: cos^{2}\theta \: A^{\circ}$

Thus, this theoretical expression derived by Compton is in excellent agreement with this experimental result.

The expression $\Delta \lambda$ leads to the following conclusion:

i.) The wavelength of the radiation scattered at different angles $\theta$ is always greater than the wavelength of the incident radiation.

ii.) The wavelength shifts $\Delta \lambda$ is independent of the wavelength of the incident X-ray, and at a fixed angle of scattering it is the same for all substances containing unbound electrons at rest.

iii.) The wavelength shift increases with the angle of scattering $\theta$ and it has a maximum value equal to $\frac{2h}{m_{\circ}c}$ when $\theta=180^{\circ}$.

4.) Limitation of Compton Effect:

i.) The Compton theory does not explain the presence of X-rays of the same wavelength in the scattered radiation, as the incident rays.

An explanation for this unmodified scattered radiation is as follows:

The incident X-ray photons collide with loosely bound outer electrons and also with tightly bound inner electrons of the atm. During a collision of a photon with tightly bound electrons, the electron is not detached from the atom. Consequently the entire atom recoils. In such a collision the Compton shift of the wavelength is given by replacing $m_{\circ}$ by the mass of the atom in equation $(7)$. Calculations show that this shift is so small that it can not be detected because the mass of an atom is usually several thousand times greater than the mass of the electron at rest.

For Example, The Graphite scattered the mass $M$ of the atom is

$M=12 \times 1840 \times m_{\circ}$

The maximum value of the Compton shift due to the collision of photons with bound electrons of graphite atoms is

$\Delta \lambda = \frac{2h}{Mc} \: sin^{2} \frac{\theta}{2}$

$\Delta \lambda = \frac{2}{12 \times 1840} \left( \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c} \right) \: sin^{2} \frac{180^{\circ}}{2}$

$\Delta \lambda = 9.058 \times 10^{-5} \times 0.02426 A^{\circ}$

$\Delta \lambda = 2.197 \times 10^{-6} A^{\circ}$

Thus the $\Delta \lambda$ is negligible.

ii.) It has been observed that the intensity of the modified X-rays is greater than that of unmodified X-rays for low atomic number materials. But for heavier materials i.e. high atomic number materials the reverse observation has been obtained. These results are not explained by the Compton theory.

5.) Compton Recoil Electron:

To study the direction $\phi$ of ejection of the recoil electron and its energy we derive the following expression

5(a) Relation between $\theta$ and $\phi$:

From the Compton theory, from equation $(5)$ we have

$ \frac{1}{\nu'}-\frac{1}{\nu} = \frac{h}{m_{\circ}c^{2}} \left(1 - cos\theta \right) $

$ \frac{\nu}{\nu'}-1 = \frac{h \nu}{m_{\circ}c^{2}} \left(1 - cos\theta \right) $

Let $\alpha =\frac{h \nu}{m_{\circ}c^{2}}$, then above equation can be written as

$ \frac{\nu}{\nu'}-1 = \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right) $

$ \frac{\nu}{\nu'} = 1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right) \qquad(8) $

Now from equation $(2)$ and equation $(3)$

$\frac{pc}{h}\: cos\phi =\nu - \nu'\: cos\theta$

$\frac{pc}{h}\: sin\phi =\nu'\: sin\theta $

Now divide the above equation:

$cot\phi = \frac{\nu - \nu'\: cos\theta}{\nu'\: sin\theta}$

$cot\phi = \frac{1}{sin \theta} \left ( \frac{\nu}{\nu'} - cos \theta \right)$

Now substitute the value $\frac{\nu}{\nu'}$ form equation $(8)$ in above equation

$cot\phi = \frac{1}{sin \theta} \left[ 1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right) - cos \theta \right]$

$cot\phi = \frac{\left( 1 + \alpha \right) \left( 1 - cos\theta \right)}{sin \theta}$

$cot\phi = \frac{\left( 1 + \alpha \right) \left( 2 sin^{2}\frac{\theta}{2} \right)}{2 sin \frac{\theta}{2} cos\frac{\theta}{2}} $

$cot\phi = \frac{\left( 1 + \alpha \right) \left( sin\frac{\theta}{2} \right)}{cos\frac{\theta}{2}} $

$cot\phi = \left( 1 + \alpha \right) tan\frac{\theta}{2} \qquad(9)$

This equation shows that the maximum value of $\phi=90^{\circ}$, when $\theta=0^{\circ}$. Therefore, the recoil electrons ejected at angles $\phi$ less than $90^{\circ}$.

5(b) Kinetic Energy of the Recoil Electron:

The kinetic energy of recoil electron $(E)$ is the difference between the kinetic energy of incident photon $(h\nu)$ and the kinetic energy of the scattered photon $(h\nu')$. i.e

$E=h\nu-h\nu' \qquad(10)$

Now from equation $(8)$

$ \frac{\nu}{\nu'} = 1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right) $

$ \nu' = \frac{\nu}{1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right)} $

Now subtitute the value of $\nu'$ in equation $(10)$, so we get

$E=h\nu-\frac{h \nu}{1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right)}$

$E=h\nu \left[1-\frac{1}{1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right)} \right]$

$E=h\nu \left[\frac{1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right) -1}{1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right)} \right]$

$E=h\nu \left[\frac{\alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right)}{1 + \alpha \left(1 - cos\theta \right)} \right] \qquad(11)$

$E=h\nu \left[\frac{\alpha \left(2sin^{2}\frac{\theta}{2} \right)}{1 + \alpha \left(2sin^{2}\frac{\theta}{2} \right)} \right]$

$E=h\nu \left[\frac{2\alpha}{cosec^{2} \frac{\theta}{2} +2 \alpha} \right] \qquad(12)$

The right-hand side of the above equation can be expressed in terms of $\phi$. Now from equation $(9)$

$cot\phi = \left( 1 + \alpha \right) tan\frac{\theta}{2}$

$\frac{1}{tan \phi}= \left( 1 + \alpha \right) \frac{1}{cot \frac{\theta}{2}}$

$cot \frac{\theta}{2}= \left( 1 + \alpha \right) \: tan \phi $

Now squaring the above equation

$cot^{2} \frac{\theta}{2}= \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} \: tan^{2} \phi $

$cosec^{2} \frac{\theta}{2} - 1 = \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} \left( sec^{2}\phi -1 \right) $

$cosec^{2} \frac{\theta}{2} - 1 = \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} sec^{2}\phi - \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2}$

$cosec^{2} \frac{\theta}{2} - 1 = \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} sec^{2}\phi - \left( 1 + \alpha^{2}+ 2\alpha \right)$

$cosec^{2} \frac{\theta}{2} - 1 = \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} sec^{2}\phi - 1 - \alpha^{2} - 2\alpha $

$cosec^{2} \frac{\theta}{2} + 2\alpha = \left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} sec^{2}\phi - \alpha^{2} $

Now substitute the value of the above equation in equation $(12)$, then we get

$E=h\nu \left[\frac{2\alpha}{\left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} sec^{2}\phi - \alpha^{2}} \right] $

$E=h\nu \left[\frac{2\alpha \: cos^{2}\phi}{\left( 1 + \alpha \right)^{2} - \alpha^{2} \: cos^{2}\phi} \right] $

The experimental value of $E$ of recoil electrons determined by Compton and Simon in $1925$ and by Bless in $1927$ agreed well with the theoretical value.

The study of the Compton effect leads to the conclusion that radiant energy in its interaction with matter behaves as a stream of discrete particles (Photons) each having energy $h\nu$ and momentum $\frac{h\nu}{c}$. In other words, radiant energy is quantized. Therefore the Compton effect is considered a decisive phenomenon in support of the quantization of energy.

Read More

Inadequacy of classical mechanics

Classical mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the motion of macroscopic bodies or objects $(i.e \: the \: size \: range \: greater \: then \: 10^{-8}m)$ under the influence of forces. While it was groundbreaking when first developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century, it has certain limitations that were discovered over time. In this answer, we will discuss these limitations in more detail:

1. Classical Mechanics is not applicable to extremely small objects: Classical mechanics assumes that particles have a definite position and momentum, which is not true in the quantum world. This limitation became apparent in the early 20th century with the discovery of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the behavior or motion of particles on an atomic and subatomic level $(i.e \: the \: size \: range \: is \: in \: between \: 10^{-8}m \: to \: 10^{-15}m)$ i.e microscopic particles. It has been successful in explaining phenomena such as the photoelectric effect, blackbody radiation, and the behavior of electrons in atoms, which cannot be explained by classical mechanics.
2. Classical Mechanics is not applicable to objects moving at very high speeds: Classical mechanics assumes that the speed of an object can be infinite,  it is not true in the relativistic world. The theory of relativity which was developed by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century, explains the behavior of objects moving at high speeds (i.e. equal to the speed of light). The theory of relativity has been successful in predicting phenomena such as time dilation, length contraction, and the equivalence of mass and energy.
3. Classical Mechanics can not well explain the behavior of systems with many particles: Classical mechanics is not well suited for dealing with systems that have many particles. This is because it is difficult to solve the equations of motion for systems with many particles, and the behavior of the system can become chaotic. The theory of statistical mechanics, developed in the late 19th century, addresses this limitation by using probability distributions to describe the behavior of large systems.
4. Classical Mechanics can not explain the behavior of objects that are very far apart or have very high masses: Newton's law of gravity works well for objects that are close together, but it fails to explain the behavior of objects that are extremely far apart or have very high masses, such as black holes and galaxies. The theory of general relativity, developed by Einstein in the early 20th century, provides a better explanation of the behavior of objects with very high masses and gravitational fields.
5. Classical Mechanics assumes determinism: Classical mechanics assumes that the universe is deterministic, meaning that the future state of a system can be predicted with complete accuracy if the initial state is known. However, this assumption has been challenged by the theory of chaos, which suggests that small changes in the initial state of a system can lead to unpredictable and chaotic behavior in the future.

In summary, while classical mechanics is still useful for understanding the behavior of macroscopic objects, its limitations have led to the development of new theories, such as quantum mechanics, relativity, statistical mechanics, and chaos theory, which can explain the behavior of the universe at different scales and levels of complexity.

Read More

Classical world and Quantum world

Classical world vs Quantum world:

The classical world and the quantum world are two fundamentally different ways of describing the behavior of matter and energy.

In the classical world, the laws of physics are described by classical mechanics, which is based on the concepts of position, velocity, and acceleration of objects. Classical mechanics is deterministic, meaning that if you know the initial conditions of a system, you can predict its future behavior with complete accuracy. This is the world we experience in our everyday lives, and it is characterized by a continuous, smooth flow of events.

In contrast, the quantum world is described by quantum mechanics, which is based on the behavior of particles on a subatomic scale. In the quantum world, particles do not have well-defined positions and velocities but rather exist in a superposition of many possible states. Moreover, measurements of quantum particles do not give deterministic results, but rather give probabilities of various outcomes. This probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is known as the uncertainty principle.

Another important feature of the quantum world is entanglement, which occurs when two particles become linked in such a way that the state of one particle depends on the state of the other particle, even if they are separated by large distances. This has important implications for the way we understand the nature of reality itself.

While the classical and quantum worlds may seem very different, they are not entirely separate from each other. Classical mechanics can be seen as an approximation of quantum mechanics for macroscopic objects, and quantum mechanics can be used to explain phenomena that cannot be explained by classical mechanics alone.

Overall, the classical world and the quantum world are both valid ways of describing the behavior of matter and energy, and they each have their own unique properties and characteristics.

Read More

Intensity of a wave

Definition of Intensity of a wave:

In a medium, the energy per unit area per unit time delivered perpendicuar to the direction of the wave propagation s caled the intensity of the wave. It is denoted by $I$.

If the energy $E$ is delivered in the time $t$ rom area $A$ perpendicular to the wave propagation, then

$I=\frac{E}{At} \qquad{1}$

Unit: $Joule/m^{2}-sec$ or $watt/m^{2}$

Dimensional formula: $[MT^{-3}]$

We know that the total mechanical energy of a vibrating particle is

$E=\frac{1}{2}m \omega^{2} a^{2}$

Where $\omega$ is the angular frequency and $a$ is the amplitude of the wave.

$E=\frac{1}{2}m (2\pi n)^{2} a^{2} \qquad \left( \omega=2\pi n \right)$

$E=2 \pi^{2} m n^{2} a^{2} \qquad(2)$

Where $m$ is the mass of the vibrating particle.

Now substitute the value of $E$ from equation $(2)$ to equation $(1)$. So the intensity of the wave

$I=\frac{2 \pi^{2} m n^{2} a^{2}}{At} \qquad(3)$

If the wave travels the distance $x$ in time $t$ with velocity $v$, Then

$t=\frac{x}{v}$

Now substitute the value of the above equation in equation $(3)$

$I=\frac{2 \pi^{2} m v n^{2} a^{2}}{Ax}$

$I=\frac{2 \pi^{2} m v n^{2} a^{2}}{V}$

Where $V$ is the volume of the corresponding medium during the wave propagation in time $t$.

$I=2 \pi^{2} \rho v n^{2} a^{2} \qquad \left(\because \rho=\frac{m}{V} \right)$

It is clear that for wave propagation in a medium with a constant velocity, i.e. wave's intensity is directly proportional to the square of amplitude and frequency both.

$I\propto a^{2}$ and $I \propto n^{2}$

Read More

Difference between sound waves and light waves

Sound Waves:

Sound waves are mechanical waves in nature.

They need a medium to propagate and so cannot be produced in a vacuum.

They can move in all types of mediums as solid liquid or gas whether they are transparent or not.

They propagate in the form of longitudinal waves.

The particle of the medium vibrates along the direction of the propagation and so contraction and rarefaction are formed there.

These are three-dimensional waves.

These waves do not show a polarization effect.

For a normal human being the audible frequency range is $20$ to $20000 Hertz$.

The speed of the sound waves is more in a dense medium than in a rare medium.

Light waves:

light waves are electromagnetic waves in nature.

They don't need any medium and so can produce and propagate in a vacuum.

Their velocity in a vacuum is the maximum of value $3 \times 10^{8} m/s$

They can move in a transparent medium only.

They propagate in the form of transverse waves.

The electric field and magnetic field vibration are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

These wave waves are also three-dimensional waves.

These waves source the polarization effect.

For a normal human being the visible frequency range is $4 \times 10^{18} Hz$ to $8 \times 10^{14} Hz$.

The speed of light is more in rare mediums than in dense ones.

Read More