Conversion of Galvanometer into a Voltmeter

What is a voltmeter?

A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential differences between two points in an electric circuit directly in volts. The instrument measuring the potential difference of the order of millivolt $(mV)$ is called a millivoltmeter. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

Galvanometer used as voltmeter:

To use the galvanometer as a voltmeter in the circuit, The resistance of the galvanometer should be very high or almost infinite as compared to the other resistance of the circuit. Because the internal resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.

So a high resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer (pivoted-type moving-coil galvanometer).

When a high resistance is connected in series to the galvanometer then the resultant resistance increases as compared to the other resistance of the circuit and it can be easily used as an ammeter and the actual potential difference can be measured through it.

Mathematical Analysis:

Let us consider, $G$ is the resistance of the coil of the Galvanometer, and the $i_{g}$ current, passing through it, produces full-scale deflection. If $V$ is the maximum potential difference that exists between two points $a$ and $b$ in the circuit. On connecting the galvanometer across the points $a$ and $b$, a current $i_{g}$ passes through the galvanometer and a high resistance $R$ is connected in series with galvanometer then

$i_{g}= \frac{V}{G + R}$

$G + R= \frac{V}{i_{g}}$

$R= \left(\frac{V}{i_{g}}\right ) - G$

If the current $i_{g}$ in the coil produces a full-scale deflection, then for the potential difference $V$ between the points $a$ and $b$, there will be a full scale deflection. Thus, on connecting a resistance $R$ of the above valve in series with the galvanometer, the galvanometer will become a voltmeter of range $0$ to $V$ Volt.

Note:

For the voltmeter, a high resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer and so the resistance of a voltmeter is very high compared to that of a galvanometer.

Resistance of voltmeter

$R_{v}=R+G$

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Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR)

LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging):

The laser system used for monitoring the environment is known as LIDAR. LIDAR is an acronym that stands for "Light Detection And Ranging".

Before the discovery of the laser, the study of the atmosphere was carried out using an optical beam, the source being the search light. One such experiment was performed by Hulbert in 1937 to study the turbidity of the atmosphere. After the discovery of the laser as a source of an optical highly coherent beam, the study of the atmosphere was revolutionised.

A pulsed laser beam is transmitted into the atmosphere. It is scattered by the particles present in the atmosphere. The scattered radiations are picked up by a receiver. The receiver removes the background sunlight by using different filters. The scattered light gives information regarding the particles present in the atmosphere. Although microwaves can also give these characteristics, the results from laser beams are better in resolution and clarity. The different particles present in the atmosphere in colloidal form can be studied by a LIDAR. A schematic diagram of such a setup is shown in the Figure Below.

A photo detector is used to measure the time dependence of the intensity of the back-scattered laser beam. The time variation can be easily converted into the height (range) from which the laser beam has been back scattered the figure below shows a plot of time dependence of back scattered laser beam, which corresponds to height in the case of clear atmosphere with no aerosols, i.e., back scattering is by pure molecular gases such as $N_{2}$, $O_{2}$, $Ar$ etc. These molecules have dimensions much smaller than optical wavelength.

The scattering is of Rayleigh type. The figure below shows a plot of time dependence of backscattered light in the atmosphere contained aerosols (colloidal particles). These particles have dimensions comparable with the wavelength of laser light. This is Mie scattering. The curve in the figure below has kinks at points A and B between heights h and h. These kinks are due to the fact that between points $A$ and $B$, there are aerosols that are responsible for a greater intensity than that for a clear atmosphere. This implies the presence of aerosols between heights $h_{1}$ and $h_{2}$. With LIDAR, it is also possible to study the concentration and sizes of the aerosols present in the atmosphere. These are very important in atmospheric pollution studies.

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Comparison between electric charge and mass

Electric Charge:

1.) An electric charge can be positive, negative, or neutral.

2.) The electric charge of a body is always quantized and follows the equation: $q=ne$

3.) The electric charge of a body remains unaffected by its speed.

4.) Charge is strictly conserved.

5.) Electrostatic forces between two charged bodies can be either attractive or repulsive.

6.) Electrostatic forces between multiple charges can sometimes cancel each other out.

7.) A charged body always carries some mass.

Mass:

1.) The mass of a body is always positive.

2.) Unlike charge, mass quantization has not yet been established.

3.) The mass of a body increases with its speed.

4.) Mass is not conserved by itself as some of the mass may get changed into energy or vice versa.

5.) Gravitational forces between two masses are always attractive.

6.) Gravitational forces between multiple bodies never completely cancel out.

7.) A body with mass may not necessarily have a net charge.

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Weak nuclear force or interaction and its properties

What is weak nuclear force? 

Weak nuclear force is an act between only elementary particles involved in the nuclear process of $\beta$ - decay. The $\beta$ decay are two types

1.) Beta Pluse Decay
2.) Beta Minus Decay

1.) Beta Plus Decay:

When a beta plus decay occurs, a proton converts into a neutron and releases a positron $\&$ an electron-neutrino. It also reduces one atomic number of an element and converts it into another element.

2.) Beta Minus Decay:

When a beta minus decay occurs, a neutrons convert into a proton and releases an electron $\&$ electron-antineutrino. It also increases one atomic number of an element and converts it into another element.

In addition to beta decay, some scientists also find many other types of weak force like "charged-current" or "neutral-current". The charge is required for "charged-curent" but not for "neutral-current"; because of that, there are two types of charged carriers: one is the $W$ boson charge carrier and $Z$ boson.

Important properties of weak nuclear force :

1. Any process involving neutrino and antineutrino is governed by weak nuclear force because these particles can experience only weak interaction and not strong nuclear interaction.

2. The strength of weak nuclear force is greater than gravitational force and less than electromagnetic force.

3. It operates only in the range of nuclear size ($ \approx 10^{-15} m$).

4. The messenger particles that transmit the weak nuclear force between elementary particles are the massive vector bosons ($W^{\pm}, Z^{\circ}$).

5. The decay of in weak nuclear force (e.g., the decay of a pion to a muon and a neutrino) is much slower than the decay caused by strong nuclear or electromagnetic forces.

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